Exodus 21:28

If an animal caused a person’s death and the owner was judged to be negligent, the relatives of the deceased could demand the death penalty for both the animal and its owner. However, that penalty was not mandatory, and the relatives could elect to accept compensation (21:30).

The statements in this section follow the usual case-law pattern used in ancient Near Eastern law codes (legal collections from the lands around Israel). This pattern begins with a possible situation introduced by the word “if.” The next part explains what should happen and begins with the word “then.”

In these chapters, some laws are grouped together. However, the text does not clearly separate personal, civil, and ceremonial laws. These types of laws appear side by side.

This shows that, for God, life is not divided into separate parts. All of life is lived in relationship with him. Every action shows whether a person is living in loving obedience to God or in resistance against him.

The Sinai covenant follows closely the pattern of treaties made in the ancient Near East. In those treaties, a great king made an agreement with smaller nations. The great king was called a suzerain (a powerful ruler). The smaller nations were called vassals (people or nations under his rule).

These treaties usually followed a clear structure:

1. The treaty began with an introduction. This section named the great king who was offering the covenant (20:1).

2. Next came a historical preamble (an introduction that explains past events). This section described what had already happened between the king and the people (20:2).

   In Exodus, God reminds Israel that he brought them out of slavery in Egypt. This shows why he has the right to make a covenant with them.

3. Then the treaty listed the stipulations (the required terms of the agreement). These explained what each side promised to do. In ancient treaties, the king promised protection from enemies and help in times of danger. The people promised loyalty and obedience.

   In Exodus, the basic terms of the covenant appear in 20:3–17. These verses include the Ten Commandments. The laws are explained further in chapters 21–23.

4. The treaty also explained where the written copy should be kept and when it should be read publicly (24:7; 25:16). This ensured that future generations would remember the covenant.

5. Ancient treaties called on the gods to witness the agreement. In Exodus, instead of calling on pagan gods, historical events and written records serve as witnesses (24:4). This shows that Israel’s covenant was different from pagan treaties.

6. Finally, treaties listed blessings and curses. Blessings would follow obedience. Curses would follow disobedience (23:20–33). This made it clear that the covenant had real consequences.

God used the familiar political treaty form of the ancient world. However, he removed pagan religious elements that were common at that time.

Through this covenant, God invited Israel into a formal relationship with himself as their king.

The Sermon on the Mount in the New Testament parallels this section of Exodus (Matthew 5:1–7:29). The Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3–12) correspond in some ways to the Ten Commandments.

Both passages describe how God’s people should live under his rule.